Ultrahigh vacuum: A survey

AUG 01, 1963

This summary of the recent history of ultrahigh‐vacuum technology is based on an invited paper presented on January 25 at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society in New York City. Professor Alpert is a member of the Coordinated Science Laboratory at the University of Illinois in Urbana.

DOI: 10.1063/1.3051063

Daniel Alpert

Somewhat over a decade ago, certain problems in the physics laboratory led to a major step forward in vacuum technology. These problems were in the fields of atomic collision processes and surface physics, in which it was impossible to obtain either high gas purity or atomically clean surfaces with the experimental techniques available. For example, at a pressure of $10^{−7} Torr$ (1 Torr is $approximately = 1 mm Hg$ ) of molecular gas, a surface which had been previously cleaned would adsorb a complete monolayer of gas in a matter of seconds. The combined efforts of a number of physicists resulted in a new set of tools which made it possible to achieve and measure pressure two or three orders of magnitude lower than was previously possible: that is, pressures down to $10^{−10}$ or somewhat lower. Among them were Nottingham of MIT and groups at three major laboratories: Apker at General Electric, Lander and Becker at Bell Telephone Laboratories, and several of us at Westinghouse Research Laboratories.

References

1. For a review of early contributions see D. Alpert, Handbuch der Physik 12, 39 (1958).
2. a. J. T. Mark and W. G. Henderson, 1961 Vacuum Symposium Transactions 1 (Pergamon Press, 1962), 31.
b. J. T. Mark and K. Dreyer, 1959 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1960), 176.
3. W. J. Lange and D. Alpert, Rev. Sci. Instr. 28, 726 (1957).https://doi.org/RSINAK
4. D. G. Bills and F. G. Allen, Rev. Sci. Instr. 26, 654 (1955).https://doi.org/RSINAK
5. a. R. Zaphiropoulos, 1959 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1960), 307.
b. W. R. Wheeler and M. Carlson, 1961 Vacuum Symposium Transactions 2 (Pergamon Press, 1962), 1309.
6. M. A. Biondi, 1960 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1961), 28.
7. R. L. Hall, 1958 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1959), 41.
8. R. Jepsen, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 2519 (1961).https://doi.org/JAPIAU
9. W. C. Schuemann, 1962 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (The Macmillan Company, 1963), 428.
10. A. Klopfer and W. Schmidt, Vacuum 10, 363 (1960); https://doi.org/VACUAV
also private communication.
11. a. W. D. Davis, 1962 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (The Macmillan Company, 1963), 363.
b. W. Davis and T. Vanderslice, 1960 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1961), 417.
12. J. Lafferty, 1962 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (The Macmillan Company, 1963), 438.
13. R. Gomer, Adv. in Catalysis 7, 93 (1955).
14. J. P. Hobson, 1961 Vacuum Symposium Transactions 1 (Pergamon Press, 1962), 146.
15. J. M. Houston, Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 2, 301 (1956).https://doi.org/BAPSA6
16. P. A. Redhead, Rev. Sci. Instr. 31, 343 (1960).https://doi.org/RSINAK
17. D. Lee, Rev. Sci. Instr. (in press).
18. G. H. Metson, Br. J. Appl. Phys. 2, 46 (1951).https://doi.org/BJAPAJ
19. P. A. Redhead, Vacuum 12, 267 (1962).https://doi.org/VACUAV
20. J. W. Ackley, C. F. Lothrup and W. R. Wheeler, 1962 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (The Macmillan Company, 1963), 452.
21. D. A. Degras, L. A. Petermann and A. Schram, 1962 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (The Macmillan Company, 1963), 497.
22. G. Moore, J. Appl. Phys. 32, 1241 (1961).https://doi.org/JAPIAU
23. H. Riemersma, R. E. Fox and W. J. Lange, 1960 Vacuum Symposium Transactions (Pergamon Press, 1961), 92.

More about the Authors

Daniel Alpert. University of Illinois, Urbana.