The early universe

JUN 01, 1968

What was the universe like when it was very young? From a high‐energy physicist’s dream world it has evolved through many eras to its present state of comparative darkness and emptiness.

DOI: 10.1063/1.3035005

Edward R. Harrison

IN RECENT YEARS the active frontiers of cosmology have widened and certain aspects of the subject are attracting more attention from physicists. Growing emphasis on physics has been stimulated by discovery of the universal black‐body radiation and by growing realization that the composition of the universe was once extremely complex.

References

1. W. Rindler, PHYSICS TODAY 20, no. 11, 23 (1967).https://doi.org/PHTOAD
2. G. Lemaître, Nature 127, 706 (1931).https://doi.org/NATUAS
3. G. Lemaître, Revue des Questions Scientifiques, November 1931, quoted in ref, 6.
4. G. Lemaître, The Primeval Atom, Van Nostrand, New York (1950).
5. G. Lemaître, “The Primaeval Atom Hypothesis,” p. 1 in La Structure et l’Evolution de l’Universe, Institut International de Physique Solvay, Brussels, Belgium (1958).
6. C. F. von Weizsäcker, Z. Physik 39, 633 (1938).https://doi.org/ZEPYAA
7. M. G. Mayer, E. Teller, Phys. Rev. 76, 1226 (1949).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
8. R. E. Peierls, K. S. Singwi, D. Wroe, Phys. Rev. 87, 46 (1952).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
9. G. Gamow, Rev. Mod. Phys. 21, 367 (1949).https://doi.org/RMPHAT
10. G. Gamow, Creation of the Universe, Viking Press, New York (1952).
11. G. Gamow in Vistas in Astronomy (A. Beer, ed.) Pergamon, London (1956) vol. 2, p. 1726.
12. R. A. Alpher, Phys. Rev. 74, 1577 (1948).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
13. P. J. E. Peebles, Lecture notes on cosmology, to be published by the University of Toronto Press.
14. G. Gamow, Phys. Rev. 74, 505 (1948); https://doi.org/PHRVAO
G. Gamow, Nature 162, 680 (1948).https://doi.org/NATUAS
15. R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, Phys. Rev. 73, 803 (1948).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
16. R. A. Alpher, Phys. Rev. 74, 1577 (1948).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
17. R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, Phys. Rev. 74, 1737 (1948); https://doi.org/PHRVAO
R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, Nature 162, 774 (1948); https://doi.org/NATUAS
R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, Phys. Rev. 75, 1089 (1949).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
18. R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, Rev. Mod. Phys. 22, 153 (1950).https://doi.org/RMPHAT
19. R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, Phys. Rev. 84, 60 (1951).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
20. R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, G. Gamow, Phys. Rev. 74, 1198 (1948); https://doi.org/PHRVAO
R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, G. Gamow, 75, 701 (1949); https://doi.org/PHRVAO , Phys. Rev.
R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, G. Gamow, 75, 332A (1949).https://doi.org/PHRVAO , Phys. Rev.
21. R. A. Alpher, G. Gamow, R. Herman, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 58, 2179 (1967).https://doi.org/PNASA6
22. G. Lemaître, Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles 47A, 49 (1927);
G. Lemaître, Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands 5, no. 200 (1930); https://doi.org/BAINAO
G. Lemaître, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 95, 483 (1931).https://doi.org/MNRAA4
23. A. D. Chernin, Soviet Astron.‐AJ 9, 871 (1966);
C. B. G. McIntosh, Nature 215, 36 (1967); https://doi.org/NATUAS
K. C. Jacobs, Nature 215, 1156 (1967); https://doi.org/NATUAS
J. M. Cohen, Nature 216, 249 (1967).https://doi.org/NATUAS
24. W. de Sitter, Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands 5, no. 193 (1930); https://doi.org/BAINAO
R. C. Tolman, Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1934), pp. 404–411;
R. A. Alpher, R. C. Herman, Phys. Rev. 75, 1089 (1949).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
25. R. C. Tolman, Phys. Rev. 37, 1639 (1931); https://doi.org/PHRVAO
Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology, Clarendon Press, Oxford, (1934), chap. 9.
26. A. A. Penzias, R. W. Wilson, Astrophys. J. 142, 419 (1965).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
27. P. G. Roll, D. T. Wilkinson, Phys. Rev. Letters 16, 405 (1966); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
G. B. Field, J. L. Hitchcock, Phys. Rev. Letters 16, 817 (1966); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
P. Thaddeus, J. F. Clauser, Phys. Rev. Letters 16, 819 (1966); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
T. F. Howell, J. R. Shakeshaft, Nature 210, 1318 (1966); https://doi.org/NATUAS
W. J. Welch, S. Keachie, D. D. Thornton, G. Wrixon, Phys. Rev. Letters 18, 1068 (1967); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
D. T. Wilkinson, Phys. Rev. Letters 19, 1195 (1967); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
R. A. Stokes, R. B. Partridge, D. T. Wilkinson, Phys. Rev. Letters 19, 1199 (1967).https://doi.org/PRLTAO
28. R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll, D. T. Wilkinson, Astrophys. J. 142, 414 (1965).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
29. Ya. B. Zeldovich, Soviet Phys.‐JETP 16, 1102 (1962).https://doi.org/SPHJAR
30. H. P. Robertson, Rev. Mod. Phys. 5, 62 (1933).https://doi.org/RMPHAT
31. H. Bondi, Cosmology, Cambridge University Press, London (1961).
32. Ya. B. Zeldovich in Advances in Astronomy and Astrophysics, Academic Press, New York (1965), vol. 3, p. 241.
33. I. D. Novikov, Ya. B. Zeldovich in Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Palo Alto, Calif. 5, 627 (1967).https://doi.org/ARAAAJ
34. J. D. North, Measure of the Universe, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1965).
35. E. R. Harrison, Nature 204, 271 (1964); https://doi.org/NATUAS
E. R. Harrison, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 131, 1 (1965); https://doi.org/MNRAA4
E. R. Harrison, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 35, 437 (1965).https://doi.org/APNYA6
36. E. Hubble, R. C. Tolman, Astrophys. J. 82, 302 (1935).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
37. Ya. B. Zeldovich, Soviet Phys.‐Usp. 9, 602 (1967).https://doi.org/SOPUAP
38. R. Weyman, Astrophys. J. 145, 560 (1966).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
39. P. J. E. Peebles (to be published).
40. E. R. Harrison, Phys. Rev. 167, 1170 (1968).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
41. H. Y. Chin, Phys. Rev. Letters 17, 712 (1966).https://doi.org/PRLTAO
42. J. A. Wheeler, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.) 2, 604 (1957).https://doi.org/APNYA6
43. E. R. Harrison, Nature 215, 151 (1967).https://doi.org/NATUAS
44. R. A. Alpher, J. W. Follin, R. C. Herman, Phys. Rev. 92, 1347 (1953).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
45. J. N. Bahcall, Phys. Rev. 136, B1165 (1964).https://doi.org/PHRVAO
46. R. A. Alpher, R. C. Herman, Rev. Mod. Phys. 22, 153 (1950); https://doi.org/RMPHAT
Ya. N. Smirnov, Soviet Astron.‐AJ 8, 864 (1965);
P. J. E. Peebles, Phys. Rev. Letters 16, 410 (1966); https://doi.org/PRLTAO
P. J. E. Peebles, Astrophys. J. 146, 542 (1966); https://doi.org/ASJOAB
R. V. Wagoner, W. A. Fowler, F. Hoyle, Astrophys. J. 148, 3 (1967); https://doi.org/ASJOAB
R. V. Wagoner, Science 155, 1369 (1967).https://doi.org/SCIEAS
47. S. W. Hawking, R. J. Taylor, Nature 209, 1278 (1966); https://doi.org/NATUAS
R. K. Sachs, A. M. Wolfe, Astrophys. J. 147, 73 (1967); https://doi.org/ASJOAB
K. S. Thorne, Astrophys. J. 148, 51 (1967).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
48. R. H. Dicke (to be published).
49. R. B. Partridge, D. T. Wilkinson, Phys. Rev. Letters 18, 557 (1967).https://doi.org/PRLTAO
50. H. Reeves in Steller Structure, (L. H. Aller, D. B. McLaughlin, eds.) University of Chicago Press, Chicago (1965), p. 150.
51. A. S. Eddington, Fundamental Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1953), pp. 9, 10.
52. D. Layzer in Annual Reviews’ of Astronomy and Astrophysics? 2, 341 (1964);
Ya. B. Zeldovich in Advances in Astronomy and Astrophysics 3, 242 (1965); https://doi.org/AAYAAK
E. R. Harrison, Rev. Mod. Phys. 39, 862 (1967).https://doi.org/RMPHAT
53. E. R. Harrison, Memoires Société Royale des Sciences de Liège 15, 15 (1967).
54. J. H. Jeans, Astronomy and Cosmogony, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1929), p. 352.
55. E. Lifshitz, J. Phys. (USSR) 10, 116 (1946).https://doi.org/JOPYA6
56. W. B. Bonnor, Z. Astrophys. 39, 143 (1956); https://doi.org/ZEASAJ
W. B. Bonnor, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 117, 104 (1957).https://doi.org/MNRAA4
57. S. W. Hawking, Astrophys. J. 145, 544 (1966).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
58. R. K. Sachs, A. M. Wolfe, Astrophys. J. 147, 73 (1967).https://doi.org/ASJOAB
59. P. J. E. Peebles, Astrophys. J. 42, 1317 (1965); https://doi.org/ASJOAB
P. J. E. Peebles, 147, 859 (1967).https://doi.org/ASJOAB , Astrophys. J.
60. E. R. Harrison, Phys. Rev. Letters 18, 1011 (1967).https://doi.org/PRLTAO
61. R. A. Alpher, R. C. Herman, Science 128, 904 (1958).https://doi.org/SCIEAS
62. E. R. Harrison (to be published).
63. A. Schuster, Nature 58, 367, 618 (1898).https://doi.org/NATUAS
64. G. R. Burbidge, F. Hoyle, Nuovo Cimento 4, 558 (1956); https://doi.org/NUCIAD
G. R. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 124, 416 (1956); https://doi.org/ASJOAB
M. Goldhaber, Science 124, 218 (1956); https://doi.org/SCIEAS
H. Alfvén, O. Klein, Arkiv Fysik 23, 187 (1962); https://doi.org/AFYSA7
H. Alfvén, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 652 (1965); https://doi.org/RMPHAT
O. Klein, Nature 211, 1337 (1966).https://doi.org/NATUAS
65. N. A. Vlasov, Soviet Astron.‐AJ 8, 715 (1965);
G. G. Fazio in Annual physics, Palo Alto, Calif., vol 5, p. 481 (1967).
66. Ref. 5, Quoted in ref. 10, p. 53.

More about the Authors

Edward R. Harrison. Four College, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.