Carnot’s contribution to thermodynamics

AUG 01, 1974

At first almost ignored and unread, Sadi Carnot’s analysis of heat engines—published 150 years ago—contained ideas and methods that were to be developed later by Clausius and Thomson.

DOI: 10.1063/1.3128802

Martin J. Klein

Sadi Carnot’s first and only scientific work was published just one hundred and fifty years ago. It initiated the development of the classical thermodynamics that James Clerk Maxwell characterized so well as “a science with secure foundations, clear definitions, and distinct boundaries.” The role Carnot’s ideas played in developing that science is the subject of this article.

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References

1. J. C. Maxwell, Scientific Papers, Reprinted Dover, New York (1965), Vol. 2, page 662.
2. Carnot’s book, in R. H. Thurston’s translation, is reprinted in Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and other Papers on the Second Law of Thermodynamics (E. Mendoza, ed.), Dover, New York (1960).
3. C. C. Gillispie, Lazare Carnot, Savant, Princeton U.P. (1971), page 57.
4. For the caloric theory see R. Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases, Oxford U.P. (1971).
5. See D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius: The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age, Cornell U.P., 1971.
6. H. Carnot, “Life of Sadi Carnot” in S. Carnot, Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat, (R. H. Thurston, ed.), John Wiley, New York (1890), page 30.
7. For an excellent analysis of the logical structure of Carnot’s theory see P. Lervig, Arch. Hist. Exact Sciences 9, 222 (1972).
8. P. S. Girard, Revue Encyclopédique 23, 411 (1824).
9. M. Kerker, Isis 51, 257 (1960).https://doi.org/ISISA4
10. E. Mendoza, Arch. Int. Hist. Sci. 12, 377 (1959).
11. Robelin, Revue Encyclopédique 55, 528 (1832).
12. B. P. E. Clapeyron, Jour. École polytech. 14, 153 (1834). Reprinted in reference 2.
13. See reference 5, pages 80, 219.
14. S. P. Thompson, The Life of William Thomson, Baron Kelvin of Largs, Macmillan, London (1910), Vol. 1.
15. W. Thomson, Mathematical and Physical Papers, Cambridge U.P. (1882), Vol. 1, page 100.
16. T. S. Kuhn in Critical Problems in the History of Science (M. Clagett, ed.), University of Wisconsin Press (1959), page 321.
17. Reference 15, page 113.
For an account of the wave theory of heat, which was widely held in the 1830’s and 1840’s, see S. G. Brush, Brit. Jour. Hist. Sci. 5, 145 (1970).
18. S. Carnot, Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, Gauthier‐Villars, Paris (1878), page 89. A selection of these notes appears in reference 2.
19. Reference 15, pages 156, 165.
20. See E. Mach, Die Principien der Wärmelehre, Barth, Leipzig (1919), pages 269–301.
Also see F. O. Koenig in Men and Moments in the History of Science (H. M. Evans, ed.), University of Washington Press (1959), page 57.
21. R. Clausius, Ann d. Phys. 79, 368, 500 (1850). Reprinted in reference 2.
22. J. W. Gibbs, Scientific Papers, reprinted by Dover, New York (1961), Vol. 2, page 262.

More about the Authors

Martin J. Klein. Yale University.